Constructivism in Practice

This week’s instructional strategy, Generating and Testing Hypotheses, requires students to create their own ideas and to be actively engaged. These are the foundations of the constructivist/constructionist learning theories (Orey, 2001). The text, “Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works”, lists six different tasks to aid students with generating and testing hypotheses: systems analysis, problem solving, historical investigation, invention, experimental inquiry, and decision making. Below are examples of how some of these tasks correlate with the principles of constructivist/constructionist learning theories.

System analysis calls for students to make a prediction after carefully examining a system. The prediction should be for change in the system when one or more things are distorted within or removed from the system (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). This type of task correlates with the constructivist approach of problem-based learning. Students need to actively look for and resolve problems that may arise in the system they are examining. Likewise, the second task of problem solving also has a direct correlation with problem-based learning.  What we as teachers need to make sure of when creating either of these two task for our students is to ensure that they have real-world implications or realistic dilemmas (Orey, 2001).

The third task, historical investigation, requires students to formulate their own hypotheses on historical events (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). This goes along with the constructionist approach as students can create a project to represent their hypotheses. Students could create a video, slide show, animated reenactment, or a performance.

Invention is another task that correlates closely with problem-based learning. Invention has students look for a need and then create a solution for that particular need (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). This idea can also extend into project-based learning if the students are to create an authentic artifact as part of the solution to the discovered need (Orey, 2001).

It is easy to see how all of these tasks call for the students to create their own ideas or projects rather than the teacher forming the ideas or concepts for them.  These tasks allow the teacher to simply be a facilitator and the students to be active in the learning process.

References:

H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that

      works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from  

      http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page    

                   

Cognitive Learning Theory

Dr. Orey describes the cognitive learning theory as following an information processing model. The model consists of three parts. The first is the sensory in which the information is input into our brains. The information is then transferred to the second phase of the model, which is short-term memory. Through rehearsal the information is then stored in the final phase of the model, long-term memory (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). To be able to recall information over a period of time the information needs to be stored in long-term memory. Long term memories are stored in networks of information. These networks are made up of numerous connections between different information. It is the connections themselves that allow us to recall information (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). The main mechanism for learning and storing information in long-term memory is elaboration (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). In elaboration we try to make as many connections as possible to the new information.

There are three types of memories, declarative, procedural, and episodic. The declarative memories are facts and information while procedural memories are more about how to do something or what is often referred to as rote memory. Episodic memories deal with events that have happened and these are some of the most powerful memories (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010).

Dual coding is another learning process that fall under the cognitive learning theory. In Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis information is stored as both images and text. Dr. Orey claims that students process images much better than text, thus making images a very powerful tool for teachers to use (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). By using both text and images students can create more connections for the information. With this in mind this week’s instructional strategies correlate strongly with the cognitive learning theory.  The first instructional strategy, cues, questions, and advance organizers allow students more opportunity to retrieve, use, and organize information (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007).  By using these tools at the beginning of a lesson students are able to activate prior knowledge and thus have something to connect the new information to (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). These connections can form a network and have a better chance of being  stored into long-term memory. This strategy also gives the students guidance in how to organize the information and connect it. Incorporating technology with this strategy can help the students as well. Advance graphic organizers that include images as well as text follows the dual coding process. This helps the students process the information better by allowing for more connections to be made.

This week’s second instructional strategy, summarizing and note taking, also has ties to the cognitive learning theory. This strategy is used to help students become better at separating the important information they need to know from the information they do not necessarily need to know and then being able to put it into their own words (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). The act of processing information and deciphering what is important is very much a cognitive process. There are some techniques that can be used to help our students with this process. One such technique is using combination notes. Combination notes use outlining, webbing, and pictographs along with text (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). Combination notes is another example of dual coding. Students may use software such as PowerPoint to create combination notes. In this process students can add images, sound, and video that they feel is meaningful to them to help them connect the information being taught (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). To help students with the summarizing process, teachers can use different types of summary slides or concept maps. These will help students to organize the information and draw attention to the critical or important parts of the information being taught (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). These also will visually connect the information for the students. These connections follow the network model of the cognitive learning theory.

References:

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2010). Program five. Cognitive learning theory [Webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Pitler H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.                              

Behaviorism

The behaviorist learning theory is based upon operant conditioning. This is accomplished by reinforcement. Students receive positive reinforcement when desirable learning takes place and some form of negative reinforcement or punishment when the desirable learning is not accomplished (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). This theory suggests that students will passively learn from stimuli in the environment and the immediate reinforcement that follows (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008).

In Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, the authors discuss the importance of effort in the classroom and how to try and increase student effort. They give the example of using Excel software to create a spreadsheet for students to track the amount of study time for a test and the correlating grade. This is an example of a behaviorist approach. The teacher is using the software to help point out the positive reinforcement of a better grade as a reward for increased effort. This is a great idea for increasing student effort and for motivation. These are some positives for the behaviorist learning theory, unfortunately I do not believe this learning theory lends itself to many positives for higher level learning though.

Instructional technology that follows the guidelines of the behaviorist learning theory is mostly drill and practice software, tutorials, or simulations (Laureate Education, Inc. 2010). They provide positive reinforcement when correct answers are given by allowing the students to move forward through the software and when the correct answer is not given students receive a form of negative reinforcement such as having to redo a problem or not advancing. These types of software are beneficial for introduction, remedial work, and diagnostic purposes. However, I do not believe they will help students gain a deep understanding of a concept or develop higher level thinking.

In Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works, they have some more productive approaches to homework and practicing. They suggest having students create their own interactive game using multimedia such as PowerPoint. Having students collaborate using web resources such as wikis to create a group project, or using spreadsheet software to create formulas and manipulate them are some more examples of using instructional technologies that allow the students to be creative, active, and develop a deeper understanding.

I believe there are times in the classroom that we as teachers can take a behaviorist approach, such as the increasing effort activity mentioned above. I do not believe constantly using such an approach will help our students learn at the level they need to in order to develop meaningful concepts.

The link below is for a website that allows for more than just drill and practice. The National Library of Virtual Manipulatives, is a great site that allows students to develop a deeper understanding of math concepts.
http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2010). Program four. Behaviorist learning theory [Webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Baltimore, MD: Author.

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc.,

        custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Pitler H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.